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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232606237 Effect of computer animation on users' performance: A review Article in Le Travail Humain · December 2000 CITATIONS 217 READS 12,379 2 authors: Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Designing multimedia documents for struggling readers View project INSTITUTE 2020 / Artificial and Human Intelligence (Nordic Chapter - Sweden) View project Mireille Bétrancourt University of Geneva 142 PUBLICATIONS 3,508 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Barbara Tversky Stanford University 292 PUBLICATIONS 18,207 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Mireille Bétrancourt on 20 October 2015. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. REVIEWS SYNTHESES EFFECT OF COMPUTER ANIMATION ON USERS’ PERFORMANCE: A REVIEW. by M. BÉTRANCOURT+ et B. TVERSKY++ Running title : Computer animation and users’ performance RÉSUMÉ EFFET DE L’ANIMATION SUR LES PERFORMANCES DES UTILISATEURS : UNE SYNTHÈSE Avec les rapides avancées technologiques de la dernière décennie, les nouvelles formes de visualisation avancée, comme la réalité virtuelle ou l’animation, ont proliféré. Contrairement à l’idée reçue selon laquelle les animations améliorent la qualité des interactions homme-ordinateur, les recherches ne font pas toujours état de bénéfices sur le plan cognitif. Dans cet article, nous présentons une revue de 17 recherches sur les effets de l’animation dans plusieurs domaines, et notamment en éducation, interaction homme-machine et psychologie. Deux types de recherches sont rapportées : 12 recherches expérimentales, comparant une interface statique et une interface animée dans des conditions contrôlées, et 5 recherches de terrain, en milieu scolaire, comparant l’utilisation d’une interface animée à un cours traditionnel (en général pour la phase d’exercices). En termes de performance générale, parmi les 12 recherches qui comparent interface statique et interface animée, sept études rapportent un effet positif de l’animation sur les performances (en général, temps et exactitude dans des tâches qui suivent l’observation du dispositif). Les cinq études restantes ne trouvent aucune + INRIA Grenoble, 655 Avenue de l’Europe, ZIRST, 38330 Montbonnot, France. Email: Mireille.Betrancourt@inria.fr ++ Dpt. of Psychology, Bldg 420, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-2130, U.S.A. Email: bt@psych.stanford.ed 4 différence entre les deux types de dispositifs. De même, trois des cinq études de terrain rapportent de meilleurs résultats pour le groupe bénéficiant de l’animation par rapport à un apprentissage papier-crayon. Ainsi, les résultats ne permettent pas d’apporter de réponse tranchée ni pour conforter, ni pour infirmer l’utilité de l’animation dans le cadre du travail. Une meilleure attitude est d’évaluer la pertinence de l’utilisation d’une interface animée en fonction de la situation dans laquelle elle va être utilisée. Cinq facteurs se sont avérés d’une importance non négligeable : le type de contenu à transmettre, le niveau d’interactivité, l’objectif de l’animation, le design de l’interface animée et enfin les variabilités interindividuelles. Pour conclure, cette synthèse souligne le manque de recherches de fond sur l’animation, qui ne seraient pas dirigées par l’intuition mais par une réflexion sur les processus cognitifs que l’animation est supposée améliorer. Néanmoins, deux principes de conception se dégagent de ces recherches : 1) le principe de concision, selon lequel l’information doit être transmise de la façon la plus claire et simple possible ; 2) le principe de correspondance conceptuelle, selon lequel l’animation doit être utilisée uniquement lorsque le contenu à transmettre implique un changement dans le temps. Mots-clés: : Animation, Instructions sur ordinateur, Interaction homme-machine, Processus cognitifs. I. INTRODUCTION With recent rapid advances in technology and with increasing contact among cultures not sharing spoken languages, graphic devices have proliferated. However, the advances in the technology of producing attractive graphics often seem to drive and outstrip the development of tools and devices rather than cognitive principles derived from research on their utility. Graphics are not always effective, or put differently, not all graphics are effective in all situations. The early research comparing learning with graphics to learning with text alone is instructive. It gave mixed results, often in spite of enthusiasm for the pictorial devices (see reviews by Levie, 1987 ; Levie & Lentz, 1982 ; Mandl & Levin, 1989). Moreover, much of the early research used global comparisons between media and did not address the subtler questions of what accounts for facilitation when it occurs. As research progressed, the types of situations, graphics, tasks, and learners for which graphics are effective have become clearer (Levin, Anglin & Carney, 1987 ; Peek, 1993). One of the newer, attractive graphic devices is animation. Animation as a learning tool presents special challenges for education and interface design because of evidence that people often have difficulties in accurately perceiving and conceiving real-life animations (e. g., Kaiser, Proffitt & Whelan, 1990). Yet, there is 5 a general belief that animation not only improves the user's understanding, but also makes one interface easier to use and more enjoyable. Are these beliefs supported by evidence? Here we review research on computer animation in education, human-computer interaction and psychology. We first need to address the potential sources of misunderstanding between disciplines by considering the referential scope of key terms in our discussion, and especially the term animation itself. Then, the average findings of 17 studies (summarized in Tables 1 and 2, see appendix) are reported. On the basis of these findings, we review the factors which could influence the users’ processing of an animated display and therefore its effectiveness. Finally, some guidelines for the design of computer animation are proposed. II. THE DIVERSITY OF THE RESEARCH FIELD One reason for the inconsistency of the research lies in the diversity of the research field in itself. Numerous empirical studies have investigated the effectiveness of computer animation, but very few have attempted to integrate these findings into an analytic framework (Scaife & Rogers, 1996). The sense of the term animation, the functions animation is supposed to serve, the objective of the study, and the comparison groups for the animation are among the variables affecting general conclusions about utility of animation. II.1. WHAT DOES THE TERM "ANIMATION" REFER TO ? Inconsistencies among studies begin with the definition of computer animation (Baek & Layne, 1988 ; Gonzales, 1996). Baek & Layne (1988) defined animation as “the process of generating a series of frames containing an object or objects so that each frame appears as an alteration of the previous frame in order to show motion.” (p. 132). Gonzales (1996) proposed a broader definition of animation as “a series of varying images presented dynamically according to user action in ways that help the user to perceive a continuous change over time and develop a more appropriate mental model of the task.” This definition however contained the idea that the user interact with the display (even minimally by hitting any key). From this review, computer animation refers to any application which generates a series of frames, so that each frame appears as an alteration of the previous one, and where the sequence of frames is determined either by the designer or the user. This definition is broader by design than either of the preceding definition. It does not stipulate what the animation is supposed to convey, and it separates the issue of animation from the issue of interaction. II.2. WHAT IS ANIMATION USED FOR ? 6 According to Levin, Anglin & Carney (1987), illustrations in text can serve five functions: 1) decoration—illustrations can help readers enjoy the text by making it more attractive; 2) representation—illustrations can help readers visualize a particular event, person, place a thing; 3) transformation—illustrations can help readers remember key information in a text; 4) organization—illustrations can help readers organize information into a coherent structure; 5) interpretation—illustrations can help readers understand the text. The variety of forms animation can take and functions that it may subserve means that the effectiveness of animation does not reside in the animation per se but in the relation between the goals of the animation, the implementation of the animation and the tasks of the user. Different uses of animation are likely to have cognitive implications. In addition, in practice, animation often takes advantage of an independent feature of computers, namely interactivity. Clearly, interactivity in itself could lead to a cognitive advantage. Some studies have tried to separate the effects of interactivity and animation (Gonzales, 1996 ; Rieber, 1990b ; Rieber, Boyce & Assad, 1990). II.3. WHAT IS THE OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY? Just as they vary in their conceptions and functions of animation, the studies also vary in their assessment of animation, in particular, in the alternative conditions animation is compared to. In some of these, both the static and animated displays involved graphics (Baek & Layne, 1988 ; Kieras, 1992 (experiment 1) ; Pane, Corbett, & John, 1996 ; Harrison, 1995 ; Kaiser, Proffitt, Whelan, & Hecht, 1992 ; Rieber, 1989a ; 1989b ; 1990b ; 1991 ; Rieber et al., 1990), so that the results can be attributed to the animation device itself. Other studies compared animated graphic display with text-only instructions (Palmiter, Elkerton, & Baggett, 1991 ; Palmiter & Elkerton 1993). In these studies, the difference between conditions may be due not to the uploads/Litterature/ effect-of-computer-animation-on-users-x27-performance-a-review.pdf