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République Algérienne Démocratique et Populaire Ministère de l’Education Supéri

République Algérienne Démocratique et Populaire Ministère de l’Education Supérieure et de la Recherche Scientifique Université d’Oran Faculté des Lettres, Langues et Arts Département des Langues Anglo-Saxonnes Section d’ANGLAIS Thèse de Doctorat d’Etat présentée par Mr Zoubir DENDANE (Université de Tlemcen) Sous la supervision de Prof. Farouk BOUHADIBA (Université d’Oran) Intitulée : Sociolinguistic Variation and Attitudes towards Language Behaviour in an Algerian Context: The Case of Tlemcen Arabic Membres du Jury: Président: Prof. Ali BOUAMRANE (Université d’Oran) Rapporteur: Prof. Farouk BOUHADIBA (Université d’Oran) Examinateur: Prof. Zoulikha BENSAFI (Univ. Nancy 2 – France) Examinateur: Prof. Farida ABDERRAHIM (Univ. de Constantine) Examinateur: Dr. Smail BENMOUSSAT (Université de Tlemcen) Thèse de Doctorat d’Etat soutenue à Oran, le 07 Avril 2007 de 9h 30 à 13h. Mention obtenue : Très honorable avec les Félicitations du Jury. Photo: Dr Z. Dendane (à gauche) avec l’encadreur Professeur F. Bouhadiba Sociolinguistic Variation and Attitudes towards Language Behaviour in an Algerian Context: The Case of Tlemcen Arabic Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................... i Contents......................................................................................................................................ii Abbreviations………..................................................................................................................v Phonetic Symbols.......................................................................................................................vi Abstract ....................................................................................................................................vii 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................1 1.1. The Chomskyan Perspective in Linguistic Theory........................................................5 1.2. Linguistic Variation: A Crucial Element in Linguistic Theory.....................................8 1.3. Different Approaches in Sociolinguistics…................................................................13 1.4. Tlemcen Speech Community, a Locus of Language Dynamics? ……………….......16 2. Some Basic Sociolinguistic Concepts.............................................................................. 22 2.1. Introduction: Language, Dialect and Variety..............................................................22 2.2. The Speech Community...............................................................................................27 2.3. Language and Small-scale Social Groups...................................................................40 2.3.1. Social Networks................................................................................................40 2.3.2. Communities of Practice...................................................................................46 2.4. Communicative Competence.......................................................................................48 2.5. The Linguistic Repertoire............................................................................................51 2.6. The Linguistic Variable...............................................................................................56 2.7. Attitudes to Linguistic Variants...................................................................................63 3. The Language Situation in Algeria ….............................................................................68 3.1. Introduction..................................................................................................................68 3.1.1 The MSA / AA Relationship................................................................................69 3.1.2. The Arabic / French Relationship.......................................................................75 3.2. The Historical Background..........................................................................................76 3.3. The impact of the French Occupation on the Algerian Society...................................81 3.4. French after Independence...........................................................................................84 3.5. Arabisation …..............................................................................................................88 3.6. Today’s Algerian Linguistic Profile............................................................................96 3.6.1. Diglossia ….......................................................................................................98 3.6.2. Diglossia and Bilingualism.............................................................................107 3.6.3. Code Choice....................................................................................................113 3.6.3.1. The Competence/Performance Approach...........................................115 3.6.3.2. The ‘Domain’ Approach.....................................................................118 3.6.3.3. The ‘Markedness’ Model....................................................................123 3.6.3.4. Speech Accommodation.....................................................................126 3.6.3.5. Social Networks and Code Choice......................................................130 3.6.4. The Dynamics of Language Contact...............................................................132 3.6.4.1. Borrowings..........................................................................................133 3.6.4.2. Code-switching and Code-mixing......................................................140 4. Sociolinguistic Variation in Tlemcen Speech Community……………………...…...154 4.1. Introduction................................................................................................................154 4.2. The Speech Community of Tlemcen........................................................................ 157 4.2.1. High Variety vs. Low Variety.........................................................................160 4.2.2. Urban Variety vs. Rural Variety.....................................................................173 4.3. Tlemcen Arabic Features.......................................................................................... 175 4.3.1. The Glottal Stop............................................................................................. 175 4.3.2. Morphological Items as Sociolinguistic Variables….................................... 181 4.3.3. Lexical Aspects of Tlemcen Arabic............................................................... 182 4.4. Language Variation in Tlemcen …...........................................................................184 4.4.1. Introductory.................................................................................................... 184 4.4.2. Language Comprehension and Preferences: MSA vs. French........................185 4.4.4.1. University Students................................................................................186 4.4.2.2. Middle and Secondary School Pupils....................................................201 4.5. Sociolinguistic Variation in Tlemcen Speech. ………...…………………...............217 4.5.1. The Glottal Stop as a Sociolinguistic Stereotype............................................218 4.5.1.1. Gender and Age.................................................................................... 220 4.5.1.2. The Variable (?) and Gender................................................................. 220 4.5.1.3. The Variable (?) and Age.......................................................................226 4.5.1.4. The Variable (?) and Social Network................................................... 234 4.5.1.5. TA Speech and Domains of Language Use….......................................238 4.5.2. TA Speech: a Locus of Change in Progress? ...................................................243 5. Attitudes Towards Language Behaviour ….................................................................249 5.1. Introduction............................................................................................................... 249 5.2. Sociolinguistics and Social-psychology of Language...............................................253 5.2.1. The Concept of ‘Attitude’............................................................................................................258 5.2.2. Lambert’s Matched-Guise Technique.............................................................259 5.2.3. Standard-with-Dialect Communities vs. Diglossic Situations.......................261 5.3. Attitudinal Aspects in the Speech Community of Tlemcen…………..……............267 5.3.1. Reactions to Language Varieties.....................................................................268 5.3.1.1. Evaluative Reactions to the Speaker’s Variety...................................271 5.3.1.2. Attitudinal Reactions to Personality Traits.........................................282 5.3.1.3. Views on Speaker’s Job Suitability................................................... 285 5.3.2. Language Attitudes and Linguistic Change....................................................290 General Conclusion …....................................................................................................292 Appendices....................................................................................................................... 298 Sociolinguistic Variation and Attitudes towards Language Behaviour in an Algerian Context: The Case of Tlemcen Arabic The purpose in the present research work is to consider, in the light of recent studies in sociolinguistics, the complexities of sociolinguistic variation and attitudes towards language behaviour in an Algerian speech community characterized at the same time by various interesting linguistic phenomena, namely: - a) dialectal variation, which is a ‘natural’ reality that can be observed virtually in all speech communities, particularly in big towns and urban centres as a result of contacts of people with different language backgrounds; - b) in parallel with this, diglossia, that linguistic phenomenon characterizing the Arab world (with CA or MSA as the High variety and AA as the Low variety), is becoming increasingly interesting as a result of the process of arabisation launched in Algeria as part of the language policy decided upon soon after independence; - c) for historical reasons that are known to everybody, Arabic/French bilingualism is another practice of considerable frequency in Algeria (the phenomenon affected Morocco and Tunisia, too, but to a lesser extent because of a much shorter period of French occupation). In addition to the fact that the Algerians consciously or unconsciously switch – or at least are constantly exposed to switching – from Algerian Arabic to French, or from Berber to French in a few areas, often mixing the languages in their conversations, there is clear evidence that in Tlemcen – the case in point in this study – people, mostly among younger native male speakers, continually switch from the local variety to what has been characterized as a rural form of Arabic. One interesting province in this work concerns, as we shall see, the reasons and motives for such fluctuating behaviour on the part of native speakers in Tlemcen. On another level, the use of the H variety, MSA – seen as the modern form of Classical Arabic – is attested in formal contexts such as education, some administration sectors, in religious sermons as well as in the written and spoken mass-media. However, the use of French, as a functional language, persists in many domains, in much of the written media (there are at least as many daily newspapers in French as in Arabic) and in those areas related to sciences, industry and economy, though, there has been, in fact, some attempts at using Standard Arabic in these fields as part of the process of arabisation. But the most important thing to be mentioned about French is its dynamicity reflected in its common use in everyday settings, both formal and informal, side by side with Algerian Arabic – or mixed with it – while MSA is practically never used in informal contexts apart from a few borrowing forms that have slipped into Colloquial Arabic. Methodology By means of different methods for data collection and elicitation techniques, such as interviews, questionnaires and recordings, the present study attempts to describe the systematic co-variance of language behaviour and social parameters: - we have tried to examine, on a macro-level, the alternation and mixing of the codes used by the speakers and the motives for their choice of one variety or another from the available speech repertoire which includes, in addition to the two colloquial Arabic varieties used in Tlemcen, a) Modern Standard Arabic, the vehicle used in education, in the media, and for religious purposes; b) French, the language left as a real legacy by the long-term French linguistic presence in Algeria. Then, the purpose of a large part of our work has been to shed light on the reasons why, consciously or unconsciously, the native speakers of Tlemcen behave the way they do in different settings, particularly in relation to social variables such as age, gender, social network and educational level. An important issue that has to be raised in relation to the native speakers’ behaviour is whether such consistent variation carries so strong an influence as to lead to linguistic changes in the variety of Tlemcen. Apart from considering language variation from a sociolinguistic viewpoint, and with a view to broaden the scope of enquiry for a better understanding of the linguistic situation in Tlemcen, our research work attempts to look at the community from a social-psychological standpoint. It is hoped that this perspective will allow for a more comprehensive description of the sociolinguistic profile of the speech community. Based on other techniques of data collection, this second part of our research focuses on how social judgement is affected by a speaker’s pronunciation, that is, on the analysis of the listener’s attitudes towards language use, and the influence that these attitudes may have on the speakers themselves. In the light of interdisciplinary considerations on language at work, and given the complexity of the sociolinguistic situation in Algeria in general, and in Tlemcen in particular, we feel that it has been more productive to adopt an eclectic approach for a broader analysis of the various linguistic phenomena at play. Tlemcen Speech Community, a Locus of Language Dynamics? As it is evident from the title of this research work, our main purpose is to examine sociolinguistic variation in the speech community of Tlemcen by trying to combine various sociolinguistic approaches and looking at the language practices from the two broad aforementioned perspectives, namely: a) analysis of native speakers’ linguistic variation in different settings and in relation to non-linguistic factors; b) observation of listeners’ attitudes toward language behaviour to discover the extent to which these are responsible for the speakers’ linguistic variation. In other words, our problematic could be put forward in the form of the following two condensed sets of research questions: 1. In what contexts does linguistic variation occur among native speakers uploads/Litterature/ doctorate-summary-sociolinguistics-dendane.pdf