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Brief Guide to Skills and Methodology in History: Prof. Paul Tonks (U.I.C.) 2 M

Brief Guide to Skills and Methodology in History: Prof. Paul Tonks (U.I.C.) 2 Major Texts are Highly Recommended: [General] Jules R. Benjamin, A Student’s Guide to History (Bedford/St. Martin’s, Boston, 2004, 9th edition) – this is the one that I am using for the quotes, but I won’t cite pages specifically as we may have different editions. See below. The Central Library has the 1987 4th edition: Call # 907 87a [Research Paper] Kate L. Turabian, Student’s Guide for Writing College Papers (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1976, 3rd edition) The Library has several editions/versions, including the 1976 one: Call # 808.042 T84s I shall place these on reserve in the Library for you, on the 2nd Floor Course Reserve Section, so that they will be available whenever you need to consult them as a reference guide – you might also consider taking out on loan an alternate copy or indeed purchasing one, perhaps online. The following guidelines and advice are chiefly drawn from the above Benjamin text. Likewise, I would recommend that you make use of the associated website, which has links to a large number of resources (such as primary and secondary sources): < http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/benjamin10e/default.asp > I would reiterate also that it would be in your best interest to talk with me individually about your work, especially the Research Paper (which constitutes a significant proportion of your course grade). Methods of Historical (and Interdisciplinary) Research History has been influenced by many other disciplines, particularly in recent years, e.g. Psychology, Sociology, Political Science, Anthropology etc. An example might be the use of demographic statistical data in Quantitative History. Types of Historical Evidence There are 2 Basic Forms of Historical Evidence: Primary & Secondary Sources. 1/ A Primary Source records the actual historical event (it is first-hand evidence). Examples: Diaries, Letters, Notebooks, Newspaper Accounts. Official Data, such as government legislation, census returns etc. also constitute primary sources. In the modern era, primary sources might take a number of different forms, such as video/audio recordings, photographs etc. 2/ A Secondary Source is a source produced not by a witness/participant in an historical event, but by someone who has investigated it subsequently, e.g. a modern historian (so most historical writing, such as an academic journal article, constitutes secondary evidence – some historical writing is in fact Tertiary (third level) because it is drawn from secondary rather than primary sources, though). Categorizing Historical Information/Evidence ‘Objective’ Conditions – This could involve quantitative data, for example, on population statistics. Social: e.g. Race/Ethnicity, Class, Gender Political – Mode of Governance, for example – What institutions governed a particular place/people. Economic – Questions such as the make-up of the economy (Internal vs. External trade, for example). ‘Subjective’ Conditions (or ‘Culture/Identity’) Elite & Popular Culture (so, in early modern Britain and America, for example, one might consider the relationship of the intellectual culture of the elite to the popular culture of the mass of the population. One could take a key area such as Religion and then ask major Questions: Were the Beliefs of the Elite significantly in tension with those of the mass of the Population?) One would aim to try to relate these two types of Historical Evidence – ‘Objective’ and ‘Subjective’ – to each other in order to Answer/Assess Key Historical Interpretive Debates: How did people’s ‘self-definition’ (or cultural identity) relate to their socio-economic status/gender/race etc.? Using Historical Evidence You must pay careful attention to the use of Evidence. This means that you need to be aware of issues of reliability, bias and so forth. How can we aim to use Evidence effectively? The key test is to compare sources (preferably as many as possible in order to give us a good ‘sample’ or data-set). One can examine sources for consistency, for example. One may have several different accounts of the same event – think about what would happen if you asked your friends to discuss a sports match or concert, one would probably have a great variety of different opinions/memories. One needs to display clear, critical reasoning in order to produce effective historical analysis and argument based upon the evaluation of a broad range of evidence. Reading and Preparation It is worth quoting Prof. Benjamin directly here: ‘The most common history assignment is the reading of a textbook. Many students hope to get by with their lecture notes, and they put off reading the textbook until right before the final exam. Reading the textbook week by week will give you the background knowledge necessary to understand the lectures and supplementary readings. In most courses the lectures embellish portions of the textbook, and lecturers assume that students are familiar with the textbook coverage. Sitting through a lecture on the economic aspects of the American Revolution may be confusing if you have not read the textbook discussion of the mercantilist theories behind many of the colonists’ grievances.’ Taking Notes in Class Again, it is worth quoting Prof. Benjamin directly here, as he makes a number of key points that all students should take on board for any History course (and indeed other courses too): ‘The first rule of note taking is simple: pay attention. Learn to concentrate on what is being said. Read assigned texts before going to class so you won’t end up taking notes on the material in the book. If everything the instructor says is new to you, you will spend so much time writing that you may not be able to grasp the theme of the lecture. If you have obtained some basic information from outside readings, however, you will be able to concentrate on noting points in the lecture that are new or different.’ I shall provide you with Benjamin’s Basic Guidelines here: 1/ Prepare for a lecture by reading all related course materials ahead of time. 2/ Write the course information, lecture subject, and date at the top of each page. 3/ Be selective – don’t try to write everything a lecturer says. 4/ Be sure to write anything that the instructor (a) puts on the board; (b) says is important; (c) emphasizes as he or she speaks. 5/ Leave room in your notes to add material later if necessary. 6/ Reread your notes later in the day on which they were written. 7/ Underline especially important points. 8/ Look up the meaning of any unfamiliar words. 9/ Rewrite any parts of your notes that are poorly organized. 10/ If something important in your notes is unclear to you, ask your instructor about it. Benjamin stresses the Range of Skills involved in Studying History: ‘Studying history provides you with a variety of skills. Reading effectively, taking class notes, and understanding what you need to know for an exam are three primary skills. These prepare the way for more advanced goals: clear writing, adequate research, and the presentation of a well-prepared thesis.’ Writing Effectively Benjamin emphasizes the importance of clear and persuasive writing in History. This is fundamental in our course. Again, it is worth quoting Benjamin here: ‘Your writing skills tell the reader a lot about your ability to think clearly, whether you are writing a student paper or a proposal to your boss . . . clear thinking is the source of clear writing. Two years after graduating, you may no longer remember the causes of World War I, but if you have sharpened your writing skills in history assignments, you will have acquired a skill and an asset that will last a lifetime.’ Benjamin identifies 2 major objectives in good, clear writing: Logical Thought and Persuasive Analysis/Argument. He offers a brief set of Guidelines for Clear Writing: 1/ Each sentence clearly names its subject. 2/ Each sentence is clear about what the subject is doing. 3/ If you have several points to make about the subject, split them into separate sentences. 4/ Each sentence adds something to the thesis of the essay. 5/ Each sentence is connected logically to the sentence around it. 6/ Avoid the passive voice. 7/ Use the past tense when writing about past historical events. 8/ Each paragraph is clear about its central point. 9/ When you get to a new point, start a new paragraph. 10/ Prepare your reader for the transition from one paragraph to another with a phrase or sentence linking the two. 11/ Each paragraph is connected logically to the sentences around it. The Research Paper – both Benjamin and Turabian are Very Useful for You Benjamin provides, again, a good summary of the value of writing a research paper: ‘The assignment to write a research paper requires you to gather your own sources of information and draw your own conclusions. It is one of the most creative tasks you will do as a history student; the paper you write is uniquely your own. Because a lot of independent work is involved, research is often the most challenging history assignment. The skills you gain from this kind of a project (gathering, organizing, and interpreting evidence) are invaluable. Any professional or uploads/Litterature/ skills-guide.pdf