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Chapter 1: 1. Define the study of human development, and explain three importan

Chapter 1: 1. Define the study of human development, and explain three important discoveries that developmentalists have made about change Study of human development: science that seeks to understand how and why people change with increasing age, and how and why they remain the same. Three crucial elements: 1. Science: goal is to understand how and why, to discover the processes of, and the reason for, development 2. Diversity: generalities and the specifics 3. Connections between change and time: focusing on all changes of human life, from the very beginning the very end. (conception to death) 2. Describe the three domains into which human development is often separated Three domains into which human development is often separated: 1. Biosocial domain- (brain and body as well as changes in them and the social influences that guide them) 2. Cognitive domain - (thought processes, perceptual abilities, and language mastery, as well as the educational institutions that encourage them) 3. psychosocial domain (emotions, personality, and interpersonal relationships with family, friends, and the wider community 3. Discuss the three broad, overlapping contexts that affect development throughout the life span 1. historical: cohort is a group of people born within a few years of each other who tend to share certain historical and social influences and perspectives. Research into the historical context reveals that our ideas about development continue to change. An idea built on shared perceptions is a social construction. Thus, the current view of the role of computers in society, which varies from the youngest to the oldest cohorts, is a social construction 2. Socioeconomic status (SES) is determined by several overlapping variables, including income, education, place of residence, and occupation. At the bottom of the SES ladder, for example, limited opportunities and intensified social pressures conspire to make growing up especially difficult. other variables, such as the presence of supportive relationships in a family, play a crucial role in determining individual development. Collective efficacy refers to the degree to which neighbors create a functioning, informal network of people who show concern for each other. 3. Culture affects development in a multitude of interrelated ways, from how parents feed or discipline their children to the ways in which they emphasize children's education and independence. impact of cultural variations in sleeping arrangements can be seen in the fact that children who sleep alone are taught to be independent of their families, while those who sleep with their parents are taught to depend on them for warmth and protection 4. List and describe the basic steps of the scientific method 1: ask a question: formulate a research question. On the basis of previous research or a particular theory or personal observation, pose a question about development. 2: develop a hypothesis: reformulate the question as a hypothesis, which is a specific prediction that can be tested. 3. test the hypothesis: Design and conduct a research project that will provide evidence- in the form of data- about the hypothesis. 4. draw conclusions: Use the evidence to support or refute the hypothesis. Assess any limitation of the research (including limitations related to the particular participants) and any alternative explanations for the results. Suggest further research. 5. make the finding available: Publishing the research is often the fifth step in the scientific method. It involves describing the procedure and results in sufficient detail that other scientist can evaluate the conclusions or replicate the research . Replication is the repetition of a scientific study, using the same procedures on another group of participants, to verify or refute the originals study’s conclusions. 5. Describe three basic research designs used by developmental psychologists cross-sectional: research design, groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other significant ways are compared with regard to a variable of interest. Any differences between the groups are presumably a result of age- related developmental processes. Advantages include convenience and time efficiency. Disadvantages include cohort differences and lack of a measure of stability. longitudinal research: the same group of people is studied over time to measure both change and stability as the group ages. Advantages include elimination of the cohort problem and a measure of stability. Some disadvantages are that it is time-consuming and expensive, there is usually a loss of subjects over time, and the sample may become less applicable to the general population as time passes. cross-sequential: a combination of the cross-sectional and longitudinal methods. The main advantage of this method is that it addresses the sample problems associated with the longitudinal approach. The disadvantages are that it is time-consuming and expensive. Chapter 2: 1. Define developmental theory, and describe how developmental theories help explain human behavior and development, noting the differences among grand theories, minitheories, and emergent theories development theory is a systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older. grand theories, which offer a comprehensive view of development but have proven to be outdated minitheories, which explain a specific area of development emergent theories, which may be the comprehensive theories of tomorrow. The grand theories discussed are the psychoanalytic, learning and cognitive theories. The emergent theories are the sociocultural and epigenetic theories. The main difference between the grand theories and emergent theories is that the grand theories offer a broader framework for interpreting development in many contexts and across numerous contexts, whereas emergent theories are an accumulation of knowledge from a number of particular minitheories and are not yet as comprehensive as the grand theories. 2. Discuss the major focus of psychoanalytic theories, and describe the conflicts that occur during Freud’s psychosexual stages Psychoanalytic theory interprets human development in terms of intrinsic drives and motives, many of which are irrational and unconscious. sexual interest and pleasure is focused on a particular part of the body 1. mouth during infancy (the oral stage) 2. anus during early childhood (the anal stage) 3. genitalia later in the preschool years (the phallic stage) 4. adolescent enters the fourth stage, the genital stage, which lasts throughout adulthood Freud believed that each stage has its own potential conflicts between child and parent and that how the child experiences and resolves the conflicts during the first three stages influences his or her personality and lifelong patterns of behavior 3. Describe the crises of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, and contrast them with Freud’s stages. Erik Erikson proposed eight developmental stages, each of which is characterized by a particular challenge, or developmental crisis. Erikson emphasized each person's relationship to the social environment and the importance of family and cultural influences in determining how well prepared individuals are to meet these crises Erikson, a former student of Freud's, devised a psychoanalytic theory of development. The first five stages of his psychosocial theory of development are analogous to Freud's psychosexual stages. Their approaches are similar in that they both believed that adult problems were a result of unresolved conflicts of childhood. However, Erikson's emphasis is on the individual's relationship to the family and culture, not just to the individual's sexual urges as in Freud's stages. In addition, Erikson's stages, unlike Freud's, extend through the life span. 4. Discuss the major focus of behaviorism, and explain the basic principles of classical and operant conditioning behaviorism have formulated laws of behavior that operate at every age. The basis of all varieties of behaviorism is the idea that psychology should focus on the objective and scientific study of behavior. One part of the learning process involves conditioning Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning) involves learning by association: the organism comes to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning), proposed by B. F. Skinner, the individual learns that particular behavior produces a particular consequence 5. Identify the focus of cognitive theory, and briefly describe Piaget’s periods of cognitive development Cognitive theory focuses on the structure and development of the individual's thought processes and their effect on his or her understanding of the world Sensorimotor: birth to 2 years. Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. No conceptual or reflective thought. Learn about object permanence- object still exists when it is out of sight. Preoperational: 2-6 years. Children use symbolic thinking, including language, to understand the world. Thinking is egocentric, causing children to understand the world from their perspective. Imagination flourishes and language becomes a significant means of self- expression and of influence from others. concrete operational: 6-11 years. children understand and apply logical operations, or principles, to interpret experiences objectively and rationally. By applying logical abilities, children learn to understand concepts of conservation, number, classification and many other scientific ideas. formal operational: 12- adulthood. Adolescents and adults think about abstractions and hypothetical concepts and reason analytically, not just emotionally. Ethics, politics, and social and moral issues become fascinating as adolescents and adults take a broader and more theoretical approach to experience. According to Piaget, people adapt to new experiences either by reinterpreting them to fit into, uploads/Geographie/ whole-study-guide 1 .pdf