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Page | 1 The Berries grow on the Slopes. A Typology of Substrate Dan Ungureanu

Page | 1 The Berries grow on the Slopes. A Typology of Substrate Dan Ungureanu Department of Balkanic and South-Slavic Studies Faculty of Humanities Charles University, Prague Abstract : Many languages have lexical substrates, a small number of words scattered in the vocabulary. Our article tries to substantiate the fact that some meanings are clustered around the substrate. It can be shown that some meanings will be typical for the substrate, across many languages. Introduction In most languages, there is a substrate, an odd number of words kept from the language spoken before the present one. There is a pre-Greek substrate in Greek, and a non-Indo-European substrate in Germanic. Sometimes, we can only identify these terms as belonging to the substrate, without any further possibility of analysis. There is a further frustration : these words are usually few, and their distribution in language seems arbitrary. I. A Typology of the Substrate Some words simply do not travel. For fir-tree, oak, birch and some other tree names, it seems as the words have their own areal and do not get replaced by invasive languages : Portuguese, Spanish, French, Romanian took the substrate words they found on the spot, as Latin has done before. Tree names, rocks, dens, caves, cliffs are more attached to a place than to languages. Swamps, bogs and marshes keep their local names. Berries too. From a linguistic point of view, “substrate words” are simple loanwords. In fact, loanwords behave like dogs ; they can be given away and will follow the new master somewhere else. Substrate words are like cats : cats prefer to stay where they live, they are more attached to their condo than to a master or another. We consider that words ‘belong’ to a language. A few of them, in fact, ‘belong’ to an area, and do not move. 1.1. Abstract concepts Lat. autumnus Rom. amurg “evening” Sscr. Rig-Veda śarvarī “night” Fr. gauche “left” Irish ciotóg 'left hand' ; Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese esquerra, izquierda“left”. Page | 2 Rumantsch tschanc “left” Sp. zurdo, “left, sinister” Sp. añicos “small pieces” Rom. fărîme “crumbles” Rom. mare “big” (cf. Irl. mor “big”) ; Lat. grandis “big”, Engl. big may be substrate. Ital. Lombard Poschiavino bigliér “many” Rom. mic “small” , Sp. charro “small, weak, bad” Fr. gaillard, Rom. bucuros “joyful, merry” Gr. μάκαρ “happy” are substrate [and may be related as well]. Finnish kikama “reverly, merrymaking” ; Orkney English blide “happy, pleased” (< Norn) Germ. Goth. diups “deep” etc. Rom. sîmbră “team, peasants working together” Sp. berrendo “with white limbs” Sp. zurrapas “dregs” Rumantsch crena “incision” 1.2 Actions, verbs Rom. a răbda “to endure” Northern Saami gierdat “to endure” (< Germ. *hardjan) 1.3 Tools and other objects Usually, plough parts: Fr. soc “plough-share”, Rom. bîrsă “share-beam” ; Sskr. linga “plough”, Sanscr. phāla-; Pers. supār “plough-share” ; Finnish sahra “wooden plough”, saara “fork in a plough” ; Egyptian Arabic biskha “part of a plough” (< Coptic pisHo “plough handle”) ; Egyptian Arabic sikka “ploughshare” (< Coptic) ; Egyptian Arabic ʔantūt “peg on the beam of a plough” (< Coptic) ; Egyptian Arabic bahūda “plough handle” (< Coptic) ; Akkadian apin “to plow” Bahraini Arabic xaṣin “digging tool” Rom. mătură “broom”, Fr. balai, “broom, Genista tinctoria, Genista sp.”, Sp. Galician bascullo “broom” (see also in Plants) ; Egyptian Arabic bihnāw “broom made of palm leaves” (< Coptic) ; Fr. braies “trousers” ; Gr. κόμβος “belt” ; Sard tuvele “threshing-floor” Sp. cama “bed” Gr. κοσύμβη “cloak used by herders and peasants” ; Fr. saie, sayon, Rom. ţundră “cloak worn by peasants” . Sscr. *dŗća- “coarse garment” Fr. bourre “uncarded wool” Rom. bască “freshly shorn uncarded wool” Rom. traistă “sack” Gr. κώρυκος “leather sack” ; Egyptian Arabic shinf “sack for straw” (<Coptic) Gr. πλίνϑος “brick” Old Pers. ĭsti “brick” Egyptian Arabic ṭūbah“brick” (< Coptic) Lat. tonsa “oar” ; Sp. tranca “stick” Sard. uduru, duru, durutzu “tree trunk with branches used for hanging coats” Rumantsch agra “lever, handle” brenta “vessel for milk” chischner “frame for drying hay” Ital. Lombard sciòs'ch “trough” 1. 4 Baskets and fish-traps Gr. πείρινϑα “basket for a car” Fr. benne, banne “basket for grapes” ; Fr. berceau etc. Vazimba (Madagascar) kimana “fish-trap” ; Beosi (Madagascar) kitreko “fish-trap” Rus. сырп “fishing net” (< Mansi) Sard. lùssia “reed grid” ; Lomb. berla “basket” béna ”box for a sleigh” 1. 5 Foods Rom. brînză “cheese” Egyptian Arabic halum “cheese” ( < Coptic qαλωμ) Fr. tomme “cheese”. Page | 3 French Savoyard bléchier “to milk”; Rom. zer “whey” (if not from Lat. serum) ; Rom. urdă “ricotta cheese” ; Romantsch Grisons tšigrún “ricotta cheese” Swiss Glarus ziger “id” ; Rumantsch tarm, tierm “Zieger, ricotta cheese” ; Ital. Lombard Poschiavo puina “ricotta” pòtt “type of small cheese” Indo-Iran. *piiūša “colostrum, biestings”. Sscr. Rig-Veda kilala id. “colostrum” is substrate in many languages. 2. Body parts 2.1 Face Lat. labium “lip” (cognate to Germ. *lepjan) ; Ital. Lombard Valtellina bésc'iula “lip” Rom. buză “lip” Sp. buz “lip”, Irula (Dravidian language) mattu “lip” (pre-Dravidian) Bengali thot “lip” Gr. μύσταξ “upper lip” χεῖλος, χελύνη “lip” Lat. bucca “cheek” ; Fr. joue “cheek” proto-Germ. *kaukon “cheek”, Sscr. kapola “cheek” Sard. bruncu “snout”, Rom. bot “snout” Fr. bec“beak”, Rom. cioc “beak”, Portuguese“beak, bill” Gr. ράμφος“beak” 2.2 Neck and throat Fr. gosier “throat”, Rom. grumaz “neck”, Finnish niska “neck”, Gr. φάρυγξ “throat”, λάρυγξ “windpipe”, proto-Germ. *khnekkan “neck” Sinhalese bella “neck” (<Vedda) Sskr. gala “throat”Bengali ghad “neck” Fr. jabot “crop” , Rom. gușă “crop, throat” North Saami suovdi “gills” ; Elmolo-Samburu tíro “fish liver” suke “pelvic fin” 2.3 Other body parts Gr. ἰξύς “loins” πυγή “buttocks, rump” North Russian gurkan “pelvis, hind part of elk back” (< Komi) Sscr. *kućši- “side of body, flank” ; Rumantsch calun “hip” Finnish täkkä “meat on the breast of game birds” ; Arm. erbuc ‘breast of animals’ Rom. rînză “stomach ; curdle” ; Occitan bescle “spleen” Rom. burtă”paunch” ; Chile Spanish guata “paunch” (˂Mapuche) Sp. sobaco “armpit” ; Rumantsch lisura “ankle, wrist” 2.4 Related concepts Rom. şută, ciută “hornless” Gr. κολοβή “with short horns” Rom. copil “bastard, child” băiat “boy” ; proto-Germ. *kiltham “child” (Engl. child etc.) Sskr Rig- Veda kumara “boy”. Portug. bagocho “boy” Fr. bréhaigne “barren (animal)”, Rom. stearpă, Friulan sterpe, Catalan mana “barren cow” (Portuguese etc.) Martin Kossmann proposes to add here Baltic German Marjelle “girl” ( from Lithuanian). 3. Animals 3.1 Diseases and endo-parasites Fr. douve, Rom. gălbează,“liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica” Portuguese modorra, “the staggers”intoxication of cattle with ryegrass. Gr.ἕλμινϑες “flukes, worms” σκώληξ “worm” ; ἴκτερος “jaundice” ; Sard. tilingròne etc. “earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris” cugurra “worm” ; Calabr. cacasentaru, carasentula “earthworm” Ital. Basilicata càmbë “caterpillar” 3.2 Birds Page | 4 Lat. fulix, “heron” , Rom. barză “white stork, Ciconia”, Sp. garza “heron”. Gr. μέροψ “bee-eater, Merops sp.”, ἀηδών “nightingale” ; Gr. κόσσυφος “blackbird, Turdus merula”. Maghreb Arabic bellarj “white storck, Ciconia” Sinhalese rera “wild duck” (< Vedda) ; Neo-Mandaic məsekkɔ “mallard” Romanian (Albanian, Slovenian) rață “duck” is very probably substrate. Arm. aɫawni “dove” , Sanskr. kapota Indo-Iranian *kapauta-“pigeon”. 3.3 Fishes In Greek, Germanic and some Saami languages, the fish names are substrate. Germanic eel. Germanic roe ; Sard groli, grori “fry” Sp. esguín “salmon parr” 3.4 Snails Ital. Lucanian caracòio “snail” (< Greek ?) . Sp. caracol. Rom. melc “snail”. 3.5 Horses Celtic marka “horse” may be substrate ; Fr. cheval, “horse” Irish pell 'horse' are substrate. So is Ugric *lox “horse” (Hungarian, Khanti, Mansi ; loanword in Russian) ; proto-Germ. *hursa “horse” Rom. mînz “foal, colt” Sanskr. kiśorá “foal” 3.5.1 Cows Sp. becerro “colt” ; Ital. Lombard Poschiavino bèrna “bad, weak cow” 3.5 Deers and goats Fr. bouc, Engl. buck, proto-Germ. *lambaz “lamb” Rom. țap “billy-goat”, Sanskr. chāga- ; Osset saeğae “billy-goat” Wakhi čəɣ “kid”; and Old Irish molt “castrated billy-goat, wether”. Latin caper (capra) “billy-goat”, Greek ἴξαλος”(castrated) billy-goat” ; Ital. Campania zìmmaru “buck” (˂Gr.) Fr. chamois “deer”, daim “roe deer”,Romanian ciută “doe”, English doe, Catalan isard “chamois”. Germ. *skap “sheep” ; Proto-Celt. *sido- “elk, stag” ; Saami Kildin puaz “deer” koan’n’t “wild deer” Fr. Gascon marro “ram” ; Fr. mouton “ram” ; Rumantsch nuorsa “sheep” Sp. sarrio “chamois” ; Cors. mavra “mouflon, Ovis musimon” 3.6 Boars Gr. πτέλας “boar, Sus scrofa”, Engl. boar, Indo-Iranian *uarāj ͪ a- “wild boar” 3.7 Hounds Engl. dog ; Sp. perro “dog” (<Basque) ; Cors. ghiacaru “dog” 3.8 Badgers, beavers, moles Fr. blaireau “badger, Meles meles” Rom. viezure “badger”, Irish brocc, Welsh broch (pre-Celtic) ; Sp. garduña,”beech marten, Martes faina” North Saami guoksi “one year-old beaver” Finnic *mäkrä “badger” ; Ital. Calabria milogna “badger, Taxus” Rom. vătui “newborn hare” Irish pattu “hare”, petta “hare” ; Sp. becerro “yearling calf” and gazapo “young rabbit". Lat. lepus “rabbit, hare” ; Ital. North Venetian dialect (Feltrinese) solva “Talpa, mole” Sp. ardilla “squirrel” 3.9 Frogs and turtles Romanian broască “frog” proto-German *kruddon, “toad” Port., Sp. sapo“toad” ; Gr. βάτραχος “frog”. Finnic *konna “toad” ; Egyptian Arabic bagrur “frog” (< Coptic πεκροɤρ “toad”) ; Ital. dial. Calabrese batràci “frog” ( < Greek), French Languedoc babi “toad”; Ital. dial Ferrarese galàna “turtle, Testudo sp.” Calabria hialona “turtle”(< Gr. khelone) Sp. uploads/Litterature/ the-berries-grow-on-the-slopes-a-typolo.pdf