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Bibliographies Robert Gagne Robert Mills Gagné was an American educator whose

Bibliographies Robert Gagne Robert Mills Gagné was an American educator whose studies of learning and instruction profoundly affected American schooling. Gagné was an education psychologist best known for his works "Conditions of Learning," which identified the mental conditions of learning and was published in 1965. Robert Mills Gagné was born on August 21, 1916, in North Andover, Massachusetts. He earned an A.B. degree from Yale in 1937 and a Ph.D. from Brown University in 1940. He was a professor of psychology and educational psychology at Connecticut College for Women (1940-1949), Pennsylvania State University (1945-1946), Princeton (1958-1962), and the University of California at Berkeley (1966-1969) and was a professor in the Department of Educational Research at Florida State University in Tallahassee starting in 1969. Gagné served as a research director for the Air Force (1949- 1958) at Lackland, Texas, and Lowry, Colorado. He was employed as a consultant to the Department of Defense (1958-1961) and to the United States Office of Education (1964-1966). In addition, he served as a director of research at the American Institute of Research in Pittsburgh (1962-1965). Gagne created a nine-step process that detailed each element required for effective learning. The model is useful for all types of learning, but this article focuses on applying it to training your team in a work environment. Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning model gives trainers and educators a checklist to use before they engage in teaching or training activities. Each step highlights a form of communication that aids the learning process. When each step is completed in turn, learners are much more likely to be engaged and to retain the information or skills that they're being taught. If you use this approach before any type of training session or presentation, you'll remember how to structure your session so that your people get the best possible learning experience. The goal of Gagné’s conditions of learning theory is to assist in classroom instruction, and to achieve that goal he developed the nine events of instruction, the process a teacher will carry out to facilitate information processing by learners (Wager, n.d.). Wager indicates that Gagné’s theory stresses two principles: 1) there are many different kinds of learning, each having its own conditions for learning, and 2) learning is a process of taking, filtering, encoding, and storing information for later retrieval under the appropriate conditions. During his career, Gagné’s focus was on intentional or purposeful learning, the type that occurs during school or in training programs. His instructional theory is widely used in the field of instructional design, and continues to influence the field of educational technology, as prominent educational journals continue to cite Gagné’s work (Utah State University, 1996). His work had a profound influence on American education and on military and industrial training. Gagné and L.J. Briggs were among the early developers of the concept of instructional systems design which suggests that all components of a lesson or a period of instruction can be analyzed and that all components can be designed to operate together as an integrated plan for instruction. In a significant article titled "Educational Technology and the Learning Process" (Educational Researcher, 1974), He defined instruction as "the set of planned external events which influence the process of learning and thus promote learning." He was also well-known for his sophisticated stimulus-response theory of eight kinds of learning which differ in the quality and quantity of stimulus-response bonds involved. From the simplest to the most complex, these are: signal learning (Pavlovian conditioning), stimulus-response learning (operant conditioning), chaining (complex operant conditioning), verbal association, discrimination learning, concept learning, rule learning, and problem solving. Gagné argued that many skills may be analyzed into a hierarchy of behaviors, called a learning hierarchy. An instructor would develop a learning hierarchy for something to be taught by stating the skill to be learned as a specific behavior and then asking and answering the question "What would you have to know how to do in order to perform this task, after being given only instructions?" He tested the concept of learning hierarchies in studies, mainly using simple arithmetic skills. His findings tended to support the notion of learning hierarchies and indicated that individuals rarely learn a higher skill without already knowing the lower skill. His approach to learning and instruction, especially the instructional systems design approach, was sometimes criticized as most appropriate for mastery learning of information and intellectual skill objectives, but less suited for attitude and cognitive strategy outcomes. Undoubtedly, his work had a tremendous impact on thinking and theories in educational circles. His hierarchical theory of prerequisite steps in learning had many implications for the sequencing of instruction, and many feel it contributed to the development of a more scientific approach to instruction. In the field of English, for example, it allowed teachers to break English language skills into successively simple components and to teach the components in an orderly sequence, reinforcing correct responses along the way. Gagné's focus on systematic precise instructions also helped to lay the groundwork for individualized instruction and school accountability in American society. Howard Gardner Howard Gardner is a developmental psychologist best-known for this theory of multiple intelligences. He believed that the conventional concept of intelligence was too narrow and restrictive and that measures of IQ often miss out on other "intelligences" that an individual may possess. "We have this myth that the only way to learn something is to read it in a textbook or hear a lecture on it. And the only way to show that we've understood something is to take a short-answer test or maybe occasionally with an essay question thrown in. But that's nonsense. Everything can be taught in more than one way," Howard Gardner has suggested. Howard Gardner was born on July 11, 1943 in Scranton, Pennsylvania. His parents, Ralph and Hilde (maiden name Weilheimer), were refugees from Nazi Germany. He described himself as "a studious child who gained much pleasure from playing the piano." In fact, he became an accomplished pianist as a child and considered becoming a professional pianist. While Gardner did not pursue becoming a professional pianist, he did teach piano from 1958 to 1969. The arts and teaching are interests he has pursued throughout his career. He completed his post-secondary education at Harvard, earning his undergraduate degree in 1965 and his Ph.D. in 1971. After spending time working with two very different groups, normal and gifted children, and brain-damaged adults, Gardner began developing a theory designed to synthesize his research and observations. In 1983, he published Frames of Mind which outlined his theory of multiple intelligences. After obtaining a doctorate in psychology at Harvard and completing postdoctoral research in neuropsychology, Gardner contributed steadily and prolifically to the academic field of education and psychology. In the 1980s, Gardner proposed and developed multiple intelligence theory based on his empirical work. Gardner attributed the emergence of multiple intelligence theory to his two major lines of work: the first being how the mind develops, particularly in the development of symbols and using abilities in the arts; the second being how the mind processes and breaks down information under special conditions. Additionally, Gardner obtained rich and authentic field experience from studying normal and gifted children, as well as adults with brain damage. This theoretical and empirical background led Howard Gardner to propose that humans have multiple types of intelligence. Gardner was the son of Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. He was a studious child who loved to read, and he developed into a gifted pianist. He retained a lifelong passion for music that contributed to his nonunitary conception of human cognitive capacity. Gardner undertook most of his formal training and graduate work at Harvard University, where he earned a bachelor’s degree in social relations in 1965 and a doctoral degree in developmental psychology in 1971. His many academic appointments included a professorship of neurology at Boston University School of Medicine (1984–2005) and a professorship of education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education (1986–98), where he was appointed the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education in 1998. The seven intelligences proposed by Gardner are linguistic, logical- mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal. Linguistic intelligence enables individuals to read, write and speak well. Logical-mathematical intelligence encompasses logical thinking (as might be used in chess or deductive reasoning, for example) as well as mathematical and scientific problem-solving. Spatial intelligence makes its appearance when an individual navigates an unfamiliar set of streets, or when an architect visualizes her plans for a building. Musical intelligence generates the set of skills that allow musicians to play a tune by ear, or to execute a phrase with sensitivity and grace. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is necessary for problem-solving that requires the individual to use his or her physical body, as would be necessary for performing a complex surgical procedure, executing a series of dance steps or catching a fly ball. Interpersonal intelligence drives social skills and things like empathy and intuition about what motivates other people-a type of uploads/Voyage/ bibliographies.pdf