Revue LISA/LISA e-journal Littératures, Histoire des Idées, Images, Sociétés du

Revue LISA/LISA e-journal Littératures, Histoire des Idées, Images, Sociétés du Monde Anglophone – Literature, History of Ideas, Images and Societies of the English-speaking World Vol. II - n°5 | 2004 Rewriting (I) Théorie de la ré-écriture Adaptation as Rewriting: Evolution of a Concept L’Adaptation comme réécriture : Évolution d’un concept C L p. 26-44 https://doi.org/10.4000/lisa.2897 Abstract Cet article retrace l’évolution du genre « adaptation » à partir du Moyen âge jusqu’au XXIe siècle et met en lumière des corrélations intéressantes entre les processus de traduction et d’adaptation. Jusqu’au XVIIIe siècle, l’adaptation était considérée comme un sous-genre de la traduction, souvent utilisé par les traducteurs et écrivains pour mettre en valeur leur créativité et affiner leur talent littéraire. L’adaptation était vue comme un moyen d’enrichir la littérature. Or, de nos jours, la terminologie employée par certains critiques ressemble trop souvent au jargon utilisé dans un tribunal. Des termes tels que violation, viol, tromperie, infidélité, trahison, tricherie, duperie, vol, sont fréquemment usités pour décrire les adaptations littéraires au lieu de mettre l’accent sur leurs contributions artistiques. Etant donné que les traductions et adaptations suggèrent l’existence de textes primaires, elles sont rarement examinées pour leurs propres mérites esthétiques mais opposées aux « œuvres originales sacrées.» Il en résulte que l’adaptation et la traduction sont souvent considérées comme des formes de création inférieures et n’échappent pas à ce que Barbara Folkart nomme « l’effet d’entropie » ou lente dégradation d’une œuvre originale et, en conséquence, sont rarement évaluées en termes de créativité et d’originalité. Cet article explore les raisons à l’origine de l’évolution des mentalités et souligne l’importance de la rupture épistémologique qui a eu lieu au XVIIIe siècle, modifiant à jamais notre conception de l’adaptation littéraire. SEARCH All OpenEdition Adaptation as Rewriting: Evolution of a Concept https://journals.openedition.org/lisa/2897 1 de 15 05/07/2022 11:03 a. m. Index terms Chronological index: XXe siècle, 20th century Full text There are three prominent modes of translatio in medieval French: translation as such, including scribal transmission; adaptation; and allegorical or extended metaphorical discourse. In each case, a source, an extant materia surviving from the past, is re-done by a new writer who is, in effect, the translator2. It is often difficult to identify the fine line separating literary adaptation from plagiarism. Even laws attempting to define the boundaries between creative writing and sheer imitation do not provide clear criteria of evaluation for derivative works1. It may be that adaptation, as rewriting, is part of a natural and unavoidable process of evolution. M. Bakhtin in The Dialogic Imagination describes at length this phenomenon and defines the novel as a developing genre encompassing a wide spectrum of stylistic adaptations. Literature is no longer seen as a fragmented composition of successive genres as defined by formalists such as Tzvetan Todorov, but as a continuum involving the constant renewal of literary styles. By constantly readapting and translating the words of others into a new language, writers ensure the survival of what would be otherwise forgotten literature while adapting narrative strategies to contemporary readers. This article extends Bakhtin’s concept of developing genre to literary adaptation and presents it as a type of rewriting sharing many characteristics with translation practises. 1 Usually, we associate translation with bilingualism and polyglotism. Foreign language teachers, translators, interpreters and bilingual speakers readily come to our minds when we think of translation. Foreignness, difference, fear, cultural mores and customs are all imbedded in the term. Yet, there is another type of translation we practice on a daily basis in our dealings with friends, colleagues and relatives. We resort to this type of translation when we feel the need to explain or clarify a concept, reword a complex sentence or make us better understood by children, students etc. All instructors, parents, administrators, technicians, politicians, ordinary citizens, and writers use this strategy to improve the communication of a message. In 1963, Roman Jakobson coined the expression “intra-lingual translation” to define this particular adaptational mode of communication. 2 Comparison of literary adaptation and translation can help us better comprehend the transformational process at the core of these practices at three different levels, namely: etymological, cultural and linguistic. The first relationship I would like to establish is concerned with etymology, for as we shall see, retracing the origins of the word gives us a better understanding of the evolution of adaptation as a genre. Borrowed from the Latin word “adaptatio,”which was associated with a particular type of translation involving a certain degree of creativity, adaptation carried the idea of transformation, adjustment and appropriation when it first appeared during the 13th century. Douglas Kelly claims that: 3 Translation is closely linked to the concept of creation in the form of updating or recycling of ideas. In the Middle Ages, there is no dichotomy between writer and translator and the practice of translation allows some originality. On the contrary, we can detect a deep sense of collaboration and admiration. Often seen as an extension of the author’s view as well as a communion of spirits, the translator writes as the author 4 Adaptation as Rewriting: Evolution of a Concept https://journals.openedition.org/lisa/2897 2 de 15 05/07/2022 11:03 a. m. Translatio is a diversified and fundamental characteristic of medieval composition, of its history and import. Topical invention is the means for translatio in the Middle Ages. The artful elaboration of true or credible arguments at suitable points in a given source, the whole process in keeping with the idea or ideas the author seeks to show forth through the work’s representations—such topical invention translates, transfers the past to the present3. might have written had he lived in the translator’s days and age. Translation is viewed as a positive practice and is associated with the ideas of invention and originality. Douglas Kelly remarks: “Topical invention” is a key expression here. Translation is viewed as a bridge across cultures and time as well as a creative transformational stage. It allows for collective memories to be passed on, while being adapted to the needs, mores and customs of the next generations. The emphasis is not so much on accuracy, fidelity and authenticity as on the literary talents of the translator who becomes a spokesperson for the source writer. We must keep in mind that medieval cosmology revolved around an epistemology different from our own, based on the concept of unity, continuity and harmony. In such a universe the poet, and to a lesser extent the writer/creator /translator occupy a privileged place for they are believed to convey and translate God’s words. Since God created man and the universe, and poets and writers find their inspiration in the things He made, then the result of their creation stems necessarily from God. As Fernand Hallyn notes in Le Sens des formes, until the Renaissance poetry is the form of discourse that is given center stage and it is commonly used as a metalanguage encompassing all other forms of discourse, i.e. sciences, philosophy, etc4. We notice among scientists, writers, poets and philosophers an effort to reconcile seemingly unrelated disciplines. Decipherment in all areas is a key concept at the core of medieval knowledge. Translation within this context is extended to the search of interrelations and plays a significant part. On the one hand, when it involves two languages, it contributes to spreading knowledge that would not be accessible to some individuals. On the other hand, when it consists in a rewording within the same language, it sometimes equates to a simplification or explanation of a source text. In both cases translators are asked to demonstrate their artistic qualities in the rhythm, rimes and images they produce. From the viewpoint of some 21st-century critics imprinted with Cartesianism and with the concept of authorship inherited from the Enlightenment, pairing translation with invention sounds more like an oxymoron than a logical association of ideas. However, from a medieval perspective, translation could be viewed as a locus of exchange where hidden truths had to be brought to the surface and reinterpreted in order to be carried on. “Translatio is itself a lingering over old matter. But it is also an expansion of vision and knowledge about that matter”5. “Expansion,” in both space and time, is another key concept exemplifying the dynamic side of a world in a developing process. In this instance, development must not be confused with detachment, which implies a sudden break. On the contrary, there exists a sense of divine communion between the source “author” and the translator/adaptor. Thus, translation becomes a collaborative endeavor oriented toward knowledge and progress. “As Marie de France wrote, the ancients understood the truth contained in their matter, but left it to posterity to rediscover and catch the light of the wisdom buried in material obscurity”6. Translation may be seen as a religious duty, and the translator’s role is to decode texts and sub-texts before adapting them to the audience of the time using metaphors and creating allegories comprehensible to all audiences. In this context, any attempt toward literal translation or plain imitation is imprinted with negative connotations and becomes synonymous uploads/Philosophie/ r19g0wa.pdf

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